General Strain Theory (GST) Application to Rehabilitation

commonplace Strain Theory (GST) Application to RehabilitationAbstractA astonishing number of blacks are incarcerated for a miscellany of criminal offences. Without having to review criminal statistics, Afro-Americans appear to lack the ability to adapt and/or beseem productive members of hostel compared to other races incarcerated. This is more than a stereotype and coincidence, other countries besides the United States have documented this phenomenon. Applying Agnews (1992) General Strain Theory (GST) to the aroused and neighborly psychological development of African-Americans, society may better understand the motive, causation, and circumstances of crime pertaining to the African-American criminal model process. I hypothesize this thought process to be a psychological condition requiring identification and intervention by the criminal justice system and correctional facilities. Investigation started by analyzing strains upon the African-American culture dilate afterwar ds the treatment of psychologically ill African-American inmates as find by the General Strain Theory and current physiological testing. A variety of social programs is available with positive interpersonal exposure and rebuilding of social skills/mindset, rehabilitating inmates to recognize, understand, and cope with strain.General Strain Theory and Rehabilitation of Mentally Ill African-American InmatesA staggering number of African-Americans are incarcerated for a variety of criminal offences. Without having to review criminal statistics, African-Americans appear to lack the ability to adapt and/or become productive members of society compared to other races incarcerated. This is more than a stereotype and coincidence, other countries besides the United States have documented this phenomenon.Applying Agnews (1992) General Strain Theory (GST) to the emotional and social psychological development of African-Americans, society may better understand the motive, causation, and circ umstances of crime pertaining to the African-American criminal thought process. I hypothesize this thought process to be a psychological condition requiring identification and intervention by the criminal justice system and correctional facilities.Investigation started by analyzing strains upon the African-American culture detailing afterwards the treatment of intellectually ill African-American inmates as observed by the General Strain Theory and current physiological testing. A variety of social programs is available with positive interpersonal exposure and rebuilding of social skills/mindset, rehabilitating inmates to recognize, understand, and cope with strain.Literature ReviewKaufman, Rebellon, Thaxton, and Agnew (2008) produced an informative article that use Agnews General Strain Theory to analyzing the motivational processes of African-Americans, beyond era, sex, or community, which leads them to criminal activity. This article evaluated the lives of African-Americans in t otality and hypothesized a lack of coping mechanisms and outlets for daily and beastly stresses or strains.A considerable amount of statistical information contained herein was gathered from various web sites and journals. The U.S. division of Justice (2006, 2007) and the U.S. subdivision of Labor (2008) quiet facts pertaining to crimes and the races in which they occurred within. While Elliott Voss (1974), Williams Gold (1972) did non find significant racial crime connections, Kelley, Huizinga, Thornberry, Loeber (1997) with Snyder Sickmund (2006) show uped recents were prone to violence. Broadhurst and Tonry (1997) with Doone (2000) confirmed that other countries besides the United States reckond rarefied criminal and correctional issues with indigenous populations of African-American decent. African-American plight can be traced back to mid-19th century by Du Bois (1899, 1904), Hawkins (1995).Without the contributions of Hirschi (1969), Akers (1998), (Cohen Felson, 1979) and others, theories such as the lifestyle theory, Walters (2005, 2007) evil Thinking Styles, and Dolls Ajzens (1992) theory of Planned Behavior, a comparative analysis would be incomplete. Credit must also go to Scobbie, Wyke, Dixon, (2009), Birgden (2004), Fallot (2001), Condelli, Bradigan, Holanchock, (1997) for contributing their knowledge and research utilise in this report exploring mentally illnesses. woeful StatisticsAfrican-Americans have unwarrantedly represented a majority of the criminals in the U.S. since the mid-19th century (Du Bois, 1899, 1904 Hawkins, 1995). In 2006, the U.S. population was comprised of approximately 13% African-Americans, however they accounted for 28% of all offence arrests, 39.3% of violent crimes, 56.3% of robberies, and 50.9% of homicides (U.S. Department of Justice, 2007).The U.S. Department of Justice (2006) reported that victims perceived 25.3% of singular criminals and 33.9% of criminals in multiple offender developments to be A frican-American according to the most recent statistics from the National Crime Victimization Survey. In robberies, offenders were perceived as African-American 47.7% of the time and 22% of the time with assaults (U.S. Department of Justice, 2006). Disregarding the fact of perceived or speculative information obtained under the high stress of a criminal act by a victim, victimization data continued to parallel current arrest data.Early self-reports did not convey significant findings between race and crime (Elliott Voss, 1974 Williams Gold, 1972), but recent reports show youths prone to violence (Kelley, Huizinga, Thornberry, Loeber, 1997 Snyder Sickmund, 2006). Canada, New Zealand, and Australia also report abnormally high offenders from indigenous populations and African-Americans decent (Broadhurst, Tonry, 1997 Doone, 2000). Accounting for bias and secernment, the overwhelming statistics of African-Americans to other races incarcerated do not coincide.General Strain TheoryTh e GST offers an exemplary causation explanation of social and environmental factors contributing to African-American delinquency. The GST examines disproportional stressors/strains upon African-Americans as causations of criminal bearing whereas kindred theories only provide for ostracize sociological (Hirschi, 1969) or poor acquaintance associations (Akers, 1998). Typically, hypotheses focus upon one factor as the causation of delinquency, the GST accounts for multiple strains upon an individual to inform criminal behavior.A broad range of strains, according to Agnew (1992), can occur from failures or removal from positive outcomes, or the anticipation of negative stimuli, could possibly response in a criminal action to pacify the emotional trigger. Recent empirical testing showed strain and anger influencing violence (Agnew, 2006 Mazerolle Piquero, 1997 Mazerolle, Burton, Cullen, Evans Payne, 2000). African-American may experience higher levels of strain compared to other r aces, but it does inevitably conclude in crime. Variables such as coping skills, social support, and mental conditioning of an individual entrust for escape from and defusing strain. Individuals whom possess exemplary social control (Hirschi, 1969) or whom do not associate with delinquent social circles (Akers, 1998) will be little likely to utilize criminal activity to cope with strain.Predominate StrainsAgnew (2001) recently clarified strain is most conducive to crime when it was viewed as unjust e.g. excessive discipline, criminal victimization, and unpredictable parental supervision, particularly when combined with economic, educational, criminal, and discriminatory strains. These types of strains create the conditions for coping to occur through criminal activity.Economic strains are prevalent amongst African-American communities with African-Americans likely to be of lower class income employed in the secondary labor market or unemployed (Conley, 2000 DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, Smith, 2007 Gittleman Wolff, 2004 Sullivan, 1998 U.S. Department of Labor, 2008). Robbery is the highest crime disproportionally observed among the African-American culture (U.S. Department of Justice, 2006, 2007) and possibly explains the situational need for supplemental income. Economic strain can be potentially interrupted as unjust, blamable upon society, and other external factors beyond an individuals control, contributing to the continued plight of the African-American culture.Family, educational, criminal, victimization, secernment, and community strains rank amongst the top stressors of the African-American culture next to economic strain. These strains are so prevalent in occurrence it is understandable and reasonable to conclude there is little escape or relief from these strains.Family strain is contributed to residency in strip areas, economics, secondary labor employment, and diminished family bonds contribute to the probability of poor parenting practices e.g. in appropriate/inconsistent discipline (Agnew et al., 2000 Patterson Fergatch, 1990 Patterson, Reid, Dishion, 1992). This breakdown can contribute to diminished parental bonds with children with juvenile delinquency becoming the strain relief mechanism (Agnew et al, 2000 McLoyd, 1990 Patterson, 1982).U.S. school systems contain a percentage of educators with low expectations of lower class student success (Cooper Moore, 1995) with the post of students, according to race, in lower educational programs without consideration of the individuals academic ability (Irvine York, 1993). This is a considerable strain upon developing African-American youths. Low rate educational programs alone effectively lessen mental development. These educational programs contain inferior curricula (Epps, 1995 Oakes, 1985). Associated/resulting from substandard educational practices of African-Americans are poor grades, unfair discipline, and poor/negative interpersonal relations with educators and studen ts contributing to strain. These strains are observable with white students attending minority-segregated schools as their academic scores reflect substandard grades compared to white students in predominately-white schools (Bankston III Caldas, 1996).Criminal victimization pertains to crimes committed against African-Americans as compared to other races. Victimization amongst African-American compared to whites was 37.3% higher (U.S. Department of Justice, 2006) with 49.5% accounting for murder and non-negligent manslaughter (U.S. Department of Justice, 2007) of which 58% of murders occur before the age of 30 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2006). African-American children between the ages of 12-19 experienced violent crimes such as murder, rape, or robbery, 48% higher than white children of the same age (U.S. Department of Justice, 2006). The burglary rate of African-American households was 22.4% higher than whites (U.S. Department of Justice, 2006). Regardless of location, inner ci ty or suburbia, the levels of victimization are consistent among African-Americans (Logan Stults, 1999).Discrimination is a strong negative that African-Americans experience frequently compared to whites and on many levels such as buying a house, car, seeking employment, education, or walking down the street (Ayres Siegelman, 1995 Farrell Jones, 1988 Feagin, 1991 Forman et. al., 1997 Kirschenman Neckerman, 1991 Yinger, 1995). African-Americans reported discrimination 34% greater than whites with 70% of African-Americans discriminated against at least once in their lifetime (Forman, Williams, Jackson, 1997). Discrimination may be the most conductive of strains eliciting negative emotions and crime-provoking behavior (Agnew, 2001). Homicide rates, at the micro level, were related to discrimination (Messner, 1989) with high rates of crime amongst African-Americans in racially segregated locales (Messner South, 1986 Shihadeh Flynn, 1996). At the micro level, positive associations existed between discrimination and juvenile delinquency (Simons et al., 2003). Negative experiences with law enforcement officers include discrimination (Miller, 1996), with frequent contact in high crime locals with unfavorable experiences (Parker, Onyekwuluje, and Murty, 1995). African-Americans were shot and killed more a lot by police officers compared to whites (Walker, Spohn, DeLone, 2000). While this fact showed negatively upon police officers, it also showed the high frequency in which African-Americans have extreme negative contacts with police officers.General Strain Theory and the Mentally IllThe Encyclopedia Britannica (2010) defines a mental disorder as, anyillnesswith significant psychological or behavioral manifestations that is associated with either a tremendous or distressing symptom or an impairment in one or more important areas of functioning. Disregarding recognizable mental illnesses such as schizophrenia cannot a majority of the African-Americans incarce rated be classified as having a mental illness? African-Americans, over years of mental strain, may suffer from and command support rebuilding and coping skills with coping resources and social support (Agnew, 1992). Problem solving competences with self-esteem and self-efficacy guidance may help to reduce and recover from the effect of strain (Agnew, 1992).Utilization of tests such as the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (Walters, 2005) or the Theory of Planned Behavior (Doll Ajzen, 1992) may help in determining emotional distress, worldview, and criminal thinking methods of African-Americans. The state of New York employ the Wilcoxon test to assess psychological changes (Ward, Bradigan, Holanchock, 1997) finding intermediate care programs containing professionals such as clinical psychologists, social workers, and occupational/recreational therapists served to avoid hospitalizing inmates via therapy (e.g. group recreational therapy, skill training, educati onal/vocational instruction, and crisis intervention). Religious recovery described by Fallot (2001) utilized spirituality as a potentially positive role in psychiatric rehabilitation.Scobbie, Wyke, and Dixon (2009) reviewed goal-setting theories to identify those that offer the best potential results in clinical practice. Scobbie, Wyke, and Dixon (2009) cogitate five main theories of social cognitive theory, goal setting theory, health action process approach, proactive coping theory, and self-regulatory model of illness behavior showed results in patient outcomes. These theories can overlap and intertwine to help identify issues and aid in rehabilitation.The common theme pertaining to rehabilitation of inmates, mentally ill or not, starts with recognizing a mental illness. While prisons are for punishment, the treatment of psychological illnesses starts with recognition by the correctional facility or guards. Birgden (2004) stated the use of correctional staff is subservient as p otential therapeutic agents (p. 283) with rehabilitation programs depending upon correctional officers support. The chance to deter future criminal activity depends upon the criminals will to succeed with the guidance of councilors and therapy.Seriously mental ill inmates account for 8% to 20% of state prison inmates hailing approximately $245 million with county estimates placed at approximately 7.2% to 15% with a cost of $58.4 million. Conservative overall estimate of approximately $1.2 billion to $1.8 billion went towards the care of inmates in the state of California in 1993-1994 (Izumi, Schiller, Hayward, 1996). The number and costs associated with the care of mentally ill inmates could be considerable lowered with the proper application of intermediate care programs to recognize and rehabilitate criminals.ConclusionTheorists typically suggest inadequate culture as one of the overall causations of deviance behavior (Bandura, 1969). There are a number of theories psychologist s consider when classifying and diagnosing mental illnesses e.g. psychodynamic theories, operant conditioning, moral development, and social learning theory. The rational choice theory states criminals make a conscious, rational, and at least partially (Schmalleger, 2006, p.118) while the lifestyle theory states criminal thinking is hierarchically organized and that certain features of an individuals general world view should correspond with specific criminal thinking styles (Walters, 2007, p. 184). The general choice theory utilizes many factors aforementioned, evaluating strain specifically upon the African-American culture.Care of African-American mental illness, while incarcerated, requires substantial emotional and possibly professional treatment and support. Correctional guards are the first step in recognizing and referring strained African-Americans requiring professional guidance, and to aid in the rehabilitation process with positive interactions and socializations. Realis tically, lesser needs may go untreated due to priority inmates with atrocious psychiatric needs. Cases with lesser, treatable, mental conditions can go untreated (Olley, Nicholls, Brink, 2009). While severe patients take priority, the needs of lesser cases should be the primary focus of correctional facilities. The recess of the criminal behavioral cycle is the focus of such rehabilitation programs.Currently there is no catchall racial explanation for the causation of crime or mental conditioning amongst African-American Kaufman, Rebellon, Thaxton, and Agnew (2008) suggested the GST offered an additional and complementary explanation that highlights the importance of emotional and motivational social psychological processes (p. 432).